Neanderthal

Neanderthals (/niˈændərtɑːl, neɪ-, -θɔːl/,[7] also Neandertals or Neandert(h)alers,[8] German: Neandertaler [neˈ(ʔ)andɐtaːlɐ];[9] Homo neanderthalensisor Homo sapiens neanderthalensis),[10] are an extinct species or subspecies of archaic humans who lived in Eurasia until about 40,000 years ago (40 kya[thousand years ago]).[11][12][13][14] They probably went extinct due to competition with or extermination by immigrating modern humans[15][16][17] or due to great climatic change,[18][19][20] disease,[21][22] or a combination of these factors.[20]

It is unclear when Neanderthals split from modern humans; DNA studies have produced results ranging from 182 kya[23] to more than 800 kya.[24] The time of divergence of Neanderthals from their ancestor H. heidelbergensis is also unclear. The oldest potential Neanderthal bones are dated to 430 kya, but the classification is uncertain.[25] Neanderthals are known from numerous fossils, especially from after 130 kya.[26] The type specimen, Neanderthal 1, was found in 1856 in the German Neander Valley. After much debate over their validity, Neanderthals were depicted as being primitive, stupid, and brutish for much of the early 20th century. Though knowledge and perception of them has markedly changed since then in the scientific community, the image of the unevolved caveman archetype remains prevalent in popular culture.[27][28]

Compared to modern humans, Neanderthals were stockier, with somewhat shorter limbs and a larger chest and nose. These features are often explained as adaptations to conserve heat in a cold climate, but (aside from body fat storage)[29] they are more likely products of genetic drift[30] and adaptations for sprinting in the warmer, forested landscape that Neanderthals often inhabited.[31] The braincases of Neanderthal men and women averaged about 1,600 cm3 (98 cu in) and 1,300 cm3 (79 cu in) respectively,[32][33][34] which is within the range of the values for modern humans. Average Neanderthal men stood around 165 cm (5 ft 5 in) and women 153 cm (5 ft) tall, similar to contemporary humans.[35]

Neanderthal technology is thought to have been quite sophisticated. It includes the Mousterian stone tool industry[36][37] and the abilities to create fire[38][39] and build cave hearths,[40][41] make the adhesive birch bark tar,[42] craft simple clothes similar to blankets and ponchos,[43] go seafaring through the Mediterranean,[44][45] make use of medicinal plants[46][47][48] as well as treat severe injuries,[49] and use various cooking techniques, such as roasting[50] and smoking.[51] Neanderthals made use of a wide array of food, mainly hoofed mammals,[52] but also other megafauna,[53][54]plants,[55][56][57] small mammals, birds, and marine resources.[58] Though they were likely apex predators, they still competed with cave bears, cave lions, cave hyaenas, and other large predators.[59] :120–143 A few examples of Paleolithic art have been controversially attributed to Neanderthals, most famously Spanish cave paintings contentiously[60] dated to before 65 kya[61][62] and the Divje Babe Flute.[63] Some claims of religious beliefs have been made.[64]Neanderthals were capable of speech, though it is unclear how complex their language was.[65][66]

The total population remained low, and they lived in small groups, interacting rarely with outsiders.[40][67] This led to the accumulation of harmful genes and inbreeding.[67] Neanderthals also lived in a high-stress environment with high trauma rates, and about 80% died before the age of 40.[68] Evidence for interbreeding between Neanderthals and anatomically modern humans was presented in the 2010 Neanderthal genome project's draft report.[69][70][71]It possibly occurred 316–219 kya[72] and more likely 100 kya and again after 65 kya.[73] Around 1–4% of all non-Subsaharan African genomes (Eurasians, Oceanians, Native Americans, and North Africans) derive from Neanderthals,[69][74][75] and about 20% of the Neanderthal genome survives today.[76] Though many of the inherited genes may have been detrimental and selected out,[77] Neanderthal introgression appears to have affected the modern human immune system.